Emotions of Inclusion and Exclusion in Transnational Spaces

Why Stories Matter:  Empathy and the Narratives of Migrants in Italy and South Africa in the early 21st century

Sonia Cancian, McGill University, Montreal, Canada

Abstract

In a 2017 report on an interview in Turin with a migrant woman from Somalia, Aisha’s demeanor conveys a need to tell her story. Through a tearful gaze, the touch of a hand, and the search for words directed to the interviewer, she lends testimony to the forms of depravity and suffering she experienced in her life, and the injustice of it all. This embodied narration of Aisha’s story struck the interviewer deeply, and later, emphatically described the scene in a report through an intersubjective lens. Empathy, a notion that explicates feelings and states of mind of openness and movement to other people's emotions, experiences, and reflections, has garnered burgeoning interest in recent years. Similarly, narratives that describe the experiences of migrants remain as relevant as ever in the interdisciplinary study of migration. How does empathy operate in the narration of migrant experiences? What inter-connections and effects are engendered at the micro- and macro-levels? This paper will endeavour to explore the concept of empathy and its weavings inside/outside narratives by examining a series of transcribed semi-structured interviews of migrant war orphans who immigrated to Italy and South Africa in the late 20^th and early 21^st century.

Bio

Dr. Sonia Cancian is a social historian with an interest in international migration and personal narratives. Before her return to Montreal in 2019, she was a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development's Center for History of Emotions in Berlin. Much of Cancian's research is focused on postwar international migration, migrant personal correspondence, gender dynamics, intimacy, emotions and migration and family. New areas of research include post-conflict resettlement, memory and migration in the 20th and 21st century. Cancian is the author of Families, Lovers, and their Letters: Italian Postwar Migration to Canada (University of Manitoba Press). Recent publications include two volumes published in 2021: Emotional Landscapes: Love, Gender, and Migration (University of Illinois Press), co-edited by Marcelo Borges, Sonia Cancian and Linda Reeder, and Cancian’s With Your Words in My Hands: The Letters of Antonietta and Loris (McGill-Queen’s University Press). She is currently international member of the Centre for Interdisciplinary Research on Montreal and visiting researcher at the Centre for Human Rights and Legal Pluralism, Faculty of Law, McGill University.

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Negotiating Exclusion within Child Migration: Legal liminality and the Process of Narrativization of the Child Migrant in the Republic of Ireland

Diego Castillo Goncalves, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland

Abstract

This paper investigates the processes by which experiences of exclusion shaped by ‘legal liminality’ interrelate with the narrativization and production of discourses on child migration. It analyses therefore the ways by which legal liminality interacts and engages with notions of emotion across different categories of migrant children, and subsequently, how this symbiotic relationship shapes narratives and construction of representations of this population. To do so, the paper focuses on how governance strategies and legal frameworks, or change within these frameworks, have come to produce migrant children’s experiences of legal liminality, and the interrelationship between this and the process of narrativization. Firstly, the paper conducts this analysis by advancing conceptualisations of ‘legal liminality’ in light of emotional discourses present within legal frameworks. It then sets its scope of enquiry, comparatively looking at oral accounts provided by migrant children living in the Republic of Ireland, evoking a comparative standpoint between the early 2000s, when a large set of migrant children arrived in the state, with more recent social and political concerns, engaging with relevance played by time in changes or stratification of this interrelationship between emotions and migration. The paper concludes by addressing how legal liminality has influenced discourse and construction of migrant children in the Irish state. 

Bio

Diego Castillo Goncalves is a doctoral researcher in the School of Law, Trinity College Dublin (TCD). Prior to this, Diego worked as a Legal Advisor with Asylum Access Malaysia, and as the Children’s Officer with the Irish Refugee Council. He is currently engaged in Policy and rights-based work with a national Human rights institution in Ireland. Additionally, Diego is a member of the board of Trustees of Safe Haven Ireland, a non-profit Organisation focusing on migrant integration. Diego has published in the areas of asylum, child migration, and ethics.

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“To Be or Not to Be”: Skilled Transmigration, Social Mobilities and Emotional Inequalities

Javiera Cienfuegos, Universidad Academia de Humanismo Cristiano, Santiago de Chile, Chile

Abstract

Skilled migration is a kaleidoscopic phenomenon and the debate regarding transnational migration of professionals has moved in numerous directions. Little information about the processes lived within host communities and emerging inequalities in these societies has been addressed. Based on a comparative biographical study conducted in Santiago, Chile, and Berlin, this chapter will show how Latin American skilled migrants manage emotions in their everyday lives. The chapter is divided into four parts. Firstly, a theoretical definition of emotions will be presented, which will allow understanding their significant role in social processes. Secondly, narratives of skilled migrants' struggles will show the prominence of social stereotypes and barriers for integration. In a third section of the analysis, I will underscore the emotions associated with feelings of inequality, demonstrating the ways in which origin, profession, gender and children are entangled. The fourth section will describe the diverse ways migrants manage social stereotypes and how they perform host communities; transforming negative feelings into positive perceptions, and resolving stress points in a process of integration and recognition. The conclusion will point to the continuum of inclusion and exclusion and related constraints on transmigrants and their agency to experience creative lives.

Bio

Dr. Javiera Cienfuegos is an Associate Professor at Universidad Academia de Humanismo Cristiano (Chile). Her main research areas include the family diversity, transnational migration, and social emotions, as part of the umbrella topic of transnational families, an area of study she has advanced on since 2007. Dr. Cienfuegos’s scientific chapters and articles are available in numerous languages. She is editor and co-editor of three books and special issues. Javiera Cienfuegos teaches courses in sociology on migration and emotions, and qualitative and mixed methods of social research. Currently, Dr. Cienfuegos works on a project that underscores family diversity through the visual academic- and community-based project “Familia Glocal”. The goal of this project is to make visible and rescue quotidian experiences and issues in ways that people are “doing family”.

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“Sounds of Slavic Unculturedness”: Music as Gendered, Aged and Classed Emotion of Exclusion  and Inclusion in Transnational Space

Ondřej Daniel, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

Abstract

This study explores a set of collective emotions associated with migration from contemporary Eastern and Southeastern Europe. For this purpose, I focus on the representations of migrants and their offspring in order to analyse emotions linked with their exclusion and inclusion expressed in the contemporary production of popular and subcultural music. In my paper, I also ask how these are affected by experiences of gender, age and class. The distinct qualities of diasporic music from contemporary Eastern and Southeastern Europe produce particular kinds of emotions. These are often instrumented by high-pitched sounds, specific rhythms and a certain loudness. Some of the musical traits reflect the regions’ associations with war and conflict, as well as joy, passion and fatalism. What results is a delimitation between a primitive and aggressive “male” side and a beautiful, proud and resistant “female” side of the region. The area is, thus, conceived as Europe’s “Other” and its signature music is seen as exotic, especially in the urban landscapes of “old Europe”. At the same time, this aesthetic captures something that some non-migrant audiences had long seen as missing from their own cultures.

Bio

Ondřej Daniel earned a PhD from the Institute of World History at Charles University’s Faculty of Arts, with a dissertation later published as Rock or Turbofolk: The Imagination of Migrants from the Former Yugoslavia (2013). Since 2016, he published a series of works that synthesised his research on the role of subcultures and violence in the development of post-socialist mainstream Czech culture and DIY subcultural practices. His current work examines intersections of class and xenophobia in contemporary Czech society. He is a founding member of the Centre for the Study of Popular Culture. He works in the Seminar on General and Comparative History within the Department of Global History at Charles University’s Faculty of Arts.

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Diaspora, Dispossession and Refugees in our own Land

Robyn Heckenberg, Curtin University, Perth, Australia

Abstract

This is an Australian Indigenous Wiradjuri standpoint. It expresses an emotional chronicle of dispossession creating an Aboriginal diaspora. In heart wrenching contexts, Aboriginal people became refugees in their own land. Exclusion, loss of freedom, close surveillance and prohibitions, are stories framed within histories of emotion. Storylines in archives and oral histories of clan and tribal connection to Country speak of trauma, disconnection and forced removal to places far away. Policies of segregation establishing missions and reserves, were sources of homesickness and grief. Experiences created narratives resonating within a history of emotions. Yet ongoing impacts on Aboriginal society and culture through this compelling rendering of ancestral history also speaks survival, resilience, and even joy. Emotions in truth-telling contexts resonate our commonalities globally:  Sami, Hawaiian and Canadian colonial experiences.  From a dialectic perspective, Indigenous people are refugees in their own lands. Cultural and historical knowledge of Indigenous people through emotion and stories of feeling resonate as recordings of devastation, but also hope. Indigenous people’s story-telling describes social commentaries of interrelatedness in connection to country channelling healing and love. Attempted cultural genocide and land expulsion make way for transformative times of shared Indigenous voices, reflected globally in the amity of UNDRIP, seeking harmonious solutions.

Bio

Robyn Heckenberg is a Wiradjuri Academic with a binding interest in community histories, social justice, river story and community development through the arts. She explores creative education and place pedagogy as conduits for Caring for Country and ensuring greater self-determination for Indigenous Australians. Her work expresses ways for environmental issues and cultural knowledge to gain greater visibility and traction so as to better look after and care for our wondrous Mother Earth and all creation. Robyn is Associate Professor and Dean of Learning and Teaching at Centre for Aboriginal Studies at Curtin University, Perth W.A. As a woman of the Wiradjuri Nation, she is from the Murray-Darling Basin. Robyn is an Associate Researcher for the Centre for the History of Emotions, UWA.

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Older Refugees Striving for Social Inclusion in an African Urban Setting 

• Faith Kilpeläinen, University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland
• Minna Zechner, Associated Professor, University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland

Abstract

Since refugees have been forced to leave their home country mostly due to war or political oppression, they have had to carry heavy emotional burdens caused by harsh life experiences. Alienation, lack of meaning and lack of life satisfaction are common experiences in such drastic and pervasive changes. We study the ways refugees from Kenya, Burundi, Kongo, Rwanda and Sudan in Nairobi strive for social inclusion, emphasizing the ethnos part of social inclusion including narrated emotional experiences and processes. Ethnos refers to a sense of cohesion and identification through shared values and cultural community. Demos is more about the formal rights ascribed to citizenship. Both ethnos and demos are essential in social inclusion, which we understand as a state where social relationships are built, individuals do not feel socially isolated. Social inclusion thus means the empowerment of individuals to participate in a society. It is contextual, so that in an urban setting the means for social inclusion are different from a rural context. The data for this chapter are drawn from fifteen interviews with African older refugees living in Nairobi, aged 50 and over. The age reflects the notions of ageing in Kenya, resonating certain physical attributes, reproductive experiences and roles performed in the community.

Bios

Faith Kilpeläinen is a postgraduate degree student at the faculty of social sciences in the discipline of social work at the University of Lapland in Finland. With a background in social work and nursing sciences she has focused to research older adults with refugee background and forced migration. Earlier she has done a study on experiences of gerontological social workers in a social welfare system, looking into their experiences with elderly clients.

 Minna Zechner is an Associate Professor in social work at the University of Lapland in Finland. Most of her research has to do with ageing and especially elder care. She has written text books on care and studied migration in relation to care: how transnational elder care is taking place and how migrants combine work and family life. Additionally, she has studied transnational habitus and mobility life stories of retired individuals. She has done also policy relevant research, as her main field is social policy. Qualitative and comparative research are familiar ways of working for her. At the moment she is co-leading a project on gerontological social work.

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Peter Leese, Associate Professor, University of Copenhagen, Denmark

Bio

Peter Leese is Associate Professor of History at the Department of English, Germanic and Romance Studies, University of Copenhagen. His publications include Narration, Migration and Identity: cross-cultural perspectives (2012) and The British Migrant Experience 1700-2000: an anthology (2002). He is also the co-editor (with Ville Kivimaki) of Trauma, Experience and Narrative in Europe after World War Two (forthcoming, 2021) and (with Julia Kohne and Jason Crouthamel) Languages of Trauma: History, Memory, and Media (2021). His current research is on processes of post-conflict reconstruction in 20^th century Europe. Migrant Representations: life-story, investigation, picture is forthcoming from Liverpool University Press in 2022.

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The Integration of German Expellees in Catholic Church in West Germany after 1945 and the Ambivalent Role of Expellee Priests

Soňa Mikulová, Center for the History of Emotions, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany

Abstract

This chapter explores mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion from a historical perspective on the process of integration of German refugees from the East, who came to Germany mainly between 1945 and 1950. Mikulová analyzes specific church communities in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Rottenburg in the first postwar decade. Drawing from the history of emotions, she focuses on emotional expressions, practices and styles as evidenced in archival documents and secondary literature, in order to investigate already established and newly created emotional communities and their capacity to include or exclude new members. Moreover, she identifies specific building elements of exclusion, such as moments, actors, acts and reactions to it, through individual feelings of exclusion. She argues that this combination of conceptual frameworks adds further understanding of the integration process of German expellees into church communities, which could be applied to broader research of inclusion and exclusion in history and presence.

Bio

Soňa Mikulová received her PhD at Charles University in Prague. After joining the Center for the History of Emotions in 2017, she was also a team member of a three-year research initiative of the Max Planck Society “Challenges of Migration, Integration and Exclusion”. Currently, she is engaged in her research project on the “emotional integration” of German expellees in both German countries after 1945. Her research interest lies in memory and cultural studies, history of emotions and public history with special focus on Central Europe and Italy. Recent publications include: “German Expellees in West Germany after 1945 and their Integration into Church Communities”, in Similar but Different: Inclusion and Exclusion of Immigrant Communities Sharing Similar Cultural Backgrounds with Their Host Societies. Population Europe Discussion Paper Series, (8/2018), 35-40; “Opportunities and challenges of political activism within public history on the example of the Mittenwald protest campaign (2002–2009)” in International Public History (a special issue, forthcoming).

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Feeling like an Emotional Community: The Forced Migration and Integration of Germans from Silesia, Pomerania and East Prussia (1945-1955)

Cecilia Molesini, University of Padua, Verona, Venice Ca’ Foscari, Italy

Abstract 

During and after WWII millions of Germans fled or were expelled from their home in the Ostgebiete of the German Reich and subsequently integrated in post-war occupied Germany. The role of the protestant Church in their reception and care was fundamental. Pastors, for instance, used circular letters (Rundbriefe) as important instruments to keep in touch with their parishioners and to create a network among families who were dispersed throughout Germany and with whom they corresponded regularly. For this contribution I turn to both the Rundbriefe and the letters of the parishioners to analyze this phenomenon through a bottom-up approach. By comparing protestant communities from three villages in Silesia, Pomerania and East Prussia I explore the ways in which these different groups comprise the one “emotional community” and to what extent forced migration itself may be identified as a possible creator of one such community. In examining people’s narratives in the period between 1945 and 1955, common ambivalent emotions have been evidenced, based on the one hand, on their desire to become more integrated in their new surroundings, and, on the other hand, the hope to be allowed to return home.

Bio

Cecilia Molesini is currently completing a PhD in Historical Studies at the Universities of Padua, Verona and Venice Ca’ Foscari. Her project focuses on flight and expulsion of Germans from Silesia, Pomerania and East Prussia after World War II and their integration in West Germany up until the mid-1970s analysing ego-documents through the history of emotions’ perspective. During her doctoral studies, she spent several months conducting research in Berlin and completing a semester at the University of Cologne, courtesy of the Erasmus+ program. She graduated with degrees in Philosophy (BA), and International Relations (MA) from the University of Bologna. As part of these studies, she attended the Free University in Berlin in 2012-2013 and spent one semester at the Higher School of Economics in Moscow in 2015. Since January 2018, she has been a member of the editorial board for the journal “Ricerche di Storia Politica”.

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Who is being Urusai? Emotions of Indonesian Migrants towards Noise Politics in Rural Japan

Median Mutiara, Nagoya University, Japan

Abstract

The symbolic representation of rural areas in Japan is laden with notions of ie, which are reflected in the paternalistic practices in the workplace, housing, and neighborly relationships. During my ethnographic fieldwork in Oarai, a small, dense town in eastern coast of Japan, I noticed the tension between migrants and the locals through the presence of set-up stones and barbed wires in the neighborhood. This paper aims to examine the emotions of migrants in relation to their neighbors by revealing the underlying conflict and attribution between the two groups in everyday encounters. The data is collected through in-depth interviews and sensory ethnography of three participants, and my experience as a migrant living in the neighborhood for eight months. The study finds that Japanese neighbors reprimand the migrants for noise making by complaining, reporting and attributing them with the word ‘urusai’ (literally means noisy, fussy, and annoying). Migrants perceived it as a stigma and rejection of their presence in the neighborhood, as they believed noise is not merely about the sound they made, but their unwanted presence. In its escalation, migrants started using ‘urusai’ to address Japanese neighbors, as an expression of frustration, sadness, rejection and disappointment rather than anger. It also reflects resistance towards the continuous ‘urusai acts’ by the Japanese neighbors in an attempt to expel the migrants. This study shows how noise can be a political tool to exercise power and control across space and how emotions try to resist it by challenging the notion.

Bio

Median Mutiara is a PhD candidate in Anthropology (migration studies) in Nagoya University, Japan. Her current research is exploring purity-impurity conceptions of Nikkei Manadonese migrants through sensory and embodied experiences in their everyday domains. Her research interests include sensory ethnography, ethnic minority integration and education, care-migration and religious practices in migration in the contexts of Indonesia and Japan. The related article on noise making is published in the journal Social Sciences, and the finding is featured in Japan’s daily newspaper, The Asahi Shimbun.

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Bangladeshi ‘infiltrators’ and the Politics of Fear in Hindu India

Maggie Paul, University of Adelaide, Australia

Abstract

The clandestine (Muslim) ‘Bangladeshi migrant’ has been a referent par excellence for ‘national threat’ discourses in India. Besides making a regular appearance in emotionally charged election campaigns and propelling major deportation drives in metropolitan cities with colourful names such as Operation Flush-Out, the figure of this ‘enemy’ has been used to penalise vulnerable urban populations for long. Sankaran Krishna has aptly articulated this longstanding obsession with ‘alien infiltration’ in terms of postcolonial ‘cartographic anxiety’. The public emotion of insecurity is both the anchor to and propelled by a politics of fear; ‘the Muslim is discursively constructed as a site of fear, fantasy, distrust, anger, envy and hatred, thus generating desires of emulation, abjection and/or extermination’, says Dibyesh Anand. This narrative has even led to solid policy implications such as amendments to the only citizenship related legal statute in the country, including the latest one in November 2019, which led to unprecedented countrywide protests in early 2020. The paper would (a) explore the contemporary politics of fear around the Bangladeshi migrants by charting the progression of the narrative of ‘infiltration’ and (b) repercussions for all migrants in the country; thus, highlighting the role of public emotions in creating political discourses around migration in the South Asian context over time.

Bio

Maggie Paul is a researcher of South Asian politics and culture. She is currently enrolled as a doctoral candidate with the Department of Politics and IR at the University of Adelaide, Australia. Her PhD research focuses on civil society and the 'crisis' of migrant citizenship during the COVID-19 lockdown in India. Her research interests include migration and migrant citizenship practices; citizenship regimes and civil society; social theory specifically post-humanist, decolonial theory; Buddhist ethics, psychology and ecology; and philosophy of education and pedagogical innovations.

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Living In-Between Inclusion and Exclusion: The Emotional Dimensions of Spousal Visa Holders’ Liminal Legal Status

Alexandra Ridgway, Centre for Criminology, The University of Hong Kong

Abstract

Between inclusion and exclusion, liminality can be found. Liminality is the hyphen space of living in-between the security of inclusion and perils of exclusion; a place “betwixt and between all the recognized fixed points in space-time of structural classification” (Turner, 1967, p.97). Yet, liminality also conveys a crossover where inclusion and exclusion can be experienced simultaneously; it is a grey space in which individual “border dwellers” (Wood, 2016, p.492) may concurrently exist as the un/accepted. Migrants frequently find themselves in a space of liminal legality, described by Menijvar (2006) as the “gray area between legal categories” (p.1000). For spouse visa holders, the conditions they must fulfil before their temporary legal status is transformed into permanent residency creates an experience of liminal legality where they exist as “probationary migrant wives” (Briddick, 2019). This chapter explores the experiences of 46 women who migrated under spouse visa schemes to either Hong Kong or Melbourne, Australia and found themselves living in-between states of inclusion and exclusion. It particularly examines the emotions involved in their experiences of liminal legality and discovers that, while affective aspects of their experiences differed depending upon their personal circumstances, they were nevertheless united by their shared experience of “emotional adriftness”.

Bio

Dr Alexandra Ridgway completed her PhD in Sociology at The University of Hong Kong in 2020. Her thesis examined spouse visa holder's experiences of marital breakdown in Hong Kong and Melbourne, Australia and revealed how their legal status shaped their family lives both prior to, during and after divorce. Alexandra identifies primarily as a socio-legal scholar and her research interests centre upon two key themes: first, family life particularly experiences of biographical disruption and crisis; and second, migration especially how immigration law shapes social lives. Prior to beginning her doctoral program, Alexandra worked for over a decade in the community sector in Australia, specialising in family violence and working with migrant and refugee populations. She is also one of the founders of the Universitas 21 Asia Pacific Research Network of Family Migration which was established in 2017.

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Migrating to the Colony: Cross-Racial Emotional Intimacies in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century British Indian Empire

Sucharita Sen, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand 

Abstract

From the nineteenth century, British women travelled to India with their officer husbands. Such women were referred to as the Memsahibs. Their duty was to recreate the British domestic life in India and ensure her husband’s homely comforts. The Memsahibs were restricted to the household which employed a retinue of servants and the Memsahibs’ role was to implement imperial hierarchies by her control over the servants. But unlike the British household, where domestic servants were predominantly female, in India, the majority of the servants were male. These men, not used to taking orders from women, blatantly disobeyed the Memsahibs. This problematised colonial relationships by challenging the superiority of the Memsahib vis-à-vis her servants, a premise on which colonial domestic arrangements were based. In such a household, the Indian ayah, employed as a Memsahib’s personal maid became the Memsahib’s companion, giving her emotional security in a migrant life. Drawing upon letters, diaries, housekeeping manuals and fictional narratives of the Memsahibs, I argue that while racial concerns and imperial hierarchies divided the Memsahib and the ayah, who belonged to two different cultural, class and racial backgrounds, their gendered affiliations forged cross-racial intimacies where emotional attachments existed in tandem with imperial power structures.

Bio

Sucharita Sen is a PhD student at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. Her research interests include Social and Political History, Political Thought and Gender Studies.

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Envy versus Guilt – Emotions and Hierarchies in Syrian Transnational Families in the Migration Regime between the Middle East and Europe

Miriam Stock, University of Education, Schwäbisch Gmünd, Germany

Abstract

Due to the civil war, many Syrian families have become suddenly transnationalized across the Middle East and Europe. This article analyses tensions, communication barriers and aligned emotions that arise in these transnational families whose members are dispersed between Syria, Lebanon, and Germany. It will show how these emotions and (non-)narrations in families reflect different experiences of exclusions which are linked to different locations in the migration system between Europe and the Middle East. This article combines three research fields, first transnational families and the re-negotiations gender roles and social status across borders, second research on emotions in migration, particularly the interdependence between emotion and space, and third the role of emotions in migration regimes and forming migrant subjectivities. The research consists of 12 qualitative interviews with Syrians in Germany and Lebanon and notes from participant observation. Emotions such as pressure, envy, guilt, shame and nostalgia are negotiated in transnational families through different means of digital communications, exchange of photos and open concealment. These emotions first reflect experiences of exclusion in different locations; second, they  point towards family members living in other geographical contexts. Finally, this paper looks closely at  the impact of these emotions on changing roles in transnational families, particularly in regards to gender, social status and generation.

Bio

Miriam Stock is an assistant professor of cultural studies and the head of the master program “integration and interculturalism” at the University of Education in Schwäbisch Gmünd. She studied human geography at the Ludwig-Maximilians-University in Munich and finished her PhD in 2012 about “gentrification, orientalism and distinction – Arab snack in Berlin”. Currently, she conducts research about young Syrian men and changing roles in transnational families in Germany, Lebanon and North Iraq. Additionally, she is active in the field of education and participation, and is head of an EU Erasmus Plus project “PARENTable – Communicating with parents of newly migrated children” (2019-2022) with partners in Turkey, Italy, Sweden and Germany (www.parent-able.com ). Miriam Stock has published research in journals such as “City, Culture and Society”, “Hommes et migration” and “Zflucht - Zeitschrift für Flüchtlingsforschung”. She is currently interested in subjects such as masculinities, emotions as well as rural-urban relations in migration research.

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